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<<>><<>><<>>_____TURKISTAN NEWSLETTER...ISSN:--1386-6265____<<>><<>><<>>
<<>><<>><<>>__________Volume:97-1:33-11-August-1997________<<>><<>><<>>
<<>><<>><<>>________Editor/Manager: Mehmet Tutuncu__________<<>><<>><<>>
<<>><<>><<>>________Business:S.Bogut,H.Savas________________<<>><<>><<>>
<<>><<>><<>>___Features: I. Noyan-Izmirli, Y. Puersuen______<<>><<>><<>>
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<<>><<>>________Editorial Board:________Dr.Robert M.Cutler______<<>><<>>
<<>><<>>________Dr.M.Gammer_____________Prof.dr.P.B.Golden______<<>><<>>
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<<>><<>>________Dr.H.Kirimli____________Dr.T.Kocaoglu___________<<>><<>>
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<<>><<>>__ Üze Tengri basmasar asra yer telinmeser, Türk bodun__<<>><<>>
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#1. Editorial
#2. Khazar Empire (Prof. dr. Peter B. Golden)
#3. New Publication: Turcoman International
#4. Turkmen President gets mixed Moscow reception RFE/RL Newsline 8 August
1997
#5. Miltary Coup in Tajikistan? (Reuters 10 Augus 1997)
#6. KYRGYZ NEWS - 7,8 AUGUST (Naryn Aiyp)
#7. Kyrgyzstan: Court's Ruling Leaves Questions On Press Freedom (Naryn
Aiyp & Don Hill)
#8. Letters to the editor (prof. dr. Lars Johanson)
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#1 Editorial
Dear members of turkistan-n,
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Turkistan Newsletter Membership Geographical distribution
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#2. KHAZAR EMPIRE (Prof. Peter B. Golden)
Date: Fri, 8 Aug 1997 10:44:38 -0400
To: turkistan-l@turkistan.org
From: pgolden@andromeda.rutgers.edu (Peter B. Golden)
Subject: Re: <Turkistan-L> Khazar Empire
I will be happy to comment on the Khazar question. There are really several
components involved : 1) what kind of a state was the Khazar Qaghanate ? 2)
Can it be called a Jewish state ? 3) Why the current interest in Khazaria
today ? The first task is relatively simple. We have data (some more
reliable than others) and Khazar history can be more or less reconstructed
(and if one likes, deconstructed as well). The second is a question of
definitions and interpretation. The third is more a matter of opinion,
hopefully opinion grounded in some historical base.
1. The Khazar Qaghanate developed out of the westernmost groupings of the
Türk Qaghanate founded in 552 in Mongolia. Under Türk leadership, it
brought together a number of Turkic and non-Turkic tribal- nomadic and
sedentary populations, coming to include Iranian, Palaeo-Caucasian, Uralic
peoples and Slavs under its political sway.Its political organization
(system of succession, dual qaghanate including a sacral king) and culture,
as far as we know it, was Turkic.
The Khazar state, most probably led by a dynasty of Qaghans of
A-shih-na origin (i.e. the same extended charismatic clan that ruled the
Türk (Kök Türk) Empire) emerged in the middle 7th century as Western Türk
rule began to decline. It fought for dominance in the Western Eurasian
steppes with the Bulghar confederation which it conquered. One result of
this was the scattering of some Bulghar groupings, one of which ca. 679
made its way to the Balkans and established the Balkan Bulghar state. It
was also engaged in fairly constant warfare with the expanding Umayyad
Caliphate, often scoring significant successes against it and periodically
threatening Muslim rule in parts of Transcaucasia until 737. In that year,
the Qaghan was defeated by the Umayyad general Marwan (later the last
Umayyad Caliph), captured on the lower Volga and compelled to embrace
Islam. This embrace was short-lived for as soon as the Arab armies
retreated (they were dangerously overextended), the Qaghan abjured Islam.
Thereafter, a more or less uneasy border was established between the
Khazars and the Arabs at the border town of Bab al-Abwab (Derbend). This
close encounter with Islam (the Khazars had already been exposed to
Christianity, they had been allies of the Emperor Heraclius (610-641) in
his wars against Sasanid Iran) appears to have raised the religious issue.
Operating in the environment in which they found themselves and
increasingly playing a role in the North-South, East-West trade in which
the Eastern Mediterranean empires (Byzantium, Sasanid Iran and its
successor state the Arabian Caliphate) were the most important "customers,"
it became essential, in order to play in this league, to have a recognized,
monotheistic world relgion. Conversion to Islam or Christianity brought
with it a certain amount of political baggage - some of it unacceptable.
According to the views of that era, conversion to Islam meant accepting the
political overlordship of the Caliphate (at least nominally). Conversion to
Christianity brought a similar,subordinate status vis-a-vis the Byzantine
emperor. After some debate (for which we have tendrils of evidence), the
Khazars chose Judaism as their "official" religion, sometime during the
reign of the 'Abbasid Caliph Harun ar-Rashid (786-809). I should add that
some scholars would place the conversion earlier, others later. But, we
have the clear statement of al-Mas'udi (Arabic text, ed. Pellat, I, p.212),
a generally reliable source, writing in the mid-9th century, repeated by
ad-Dimishqi (a much later, 14th century author, ed. Mehren, p.263), placing
the conversion during the reign of Harun. The mechanics of the conversion,
which was hardly an overnight affair, remain obscure. In all likelihood,
there were a series of conversions, extending from the top down to other
segments of Khazar society over a period of time. This is the normal course
of things. The same process can be observed in the Christianization of the
Roman Empire, in the spread of Islam in the Caliphate etc. Who did the
converting is also not known. Most probably they were merchants as these
were the main bearers of religions in the steppes, playing a key role in
the spread of Islam, Manichaeanism (to which the Uyghurs converted, in 762,
at almost the same time as the Khazars), Nestorian Christianity, Buddhism
etc. It would be a great mistake to view this as simply a cynical act of
economic or political calculation - although these elements were
undoubtedly present (as they have been in other, similar conversions).
There were also important elements of attraction to the culture represented
by that faith, to charismatic preachers and so on. In the absence of
written records from the parties involved (which themselves may not be
"objective" - memoirs are notoriously self-serving), one can only
speculate. In any event, Judaism, although periodically persecuted in the
Byzantine Empire and granted a tolerated (but still second class status) in
the Caliphate, nonetheless placed the Khazar Qaghans on a par with their
fellow imperial rulers. They could now claim that they were adherents of a
religion that was ancestral to both Christianity and Islam and to which
both acknowledged a connection. For the details of this, I would recommend
D.M. Dunlop's History of the Jewish Khazars (Princeton, 1954) and my
article "Khazaria and Judaism" in Archivum Eurasiae Medii Aevi, III (1983),
pp.128-156.
In this huge Khazar state (it was one of the largest political
formations of the era), who became Jews ? The Muslim sources (our chief
material - the Byzantine completely ignored the issue, Western European
sources (Latin) wre aware of it, noted Khazar Judaism, but it was far away
and not of immediate concern) report the following :
Ibn Rusta, ed. de Goeje, p.139 (ca. 920), repeated by Gardizi : "Their
supreme chief professes Judaism as does also the Isha (= Ishad) and those
of the leaders and great ones who sympathisize with his inclinations. The
rest of them profess a faith similar to that of the Turks." In other words,
shamanists, the Tengri cult etc. Ibn Rusta's account is believed to reflect
the situation decades, if not almost a century before he wrote.
Ibn Fadlan (writing ca. 921-22- he was in the region, having been the
secretary of a Caliphal mission to Volga Bulgharia to help develop Islamic
institutions in that newly Islamicizing state, the text is preserved in
Yaqut, Mu'jam al-Buldan, Beirut ed., II, p.369) : "The Khazars and their
king are all Jews"
Ibn al-Faqih, ed. de Goeje, p.298 (ca. 930), "All of the Khazars are Jews.
But, they have Judaized recently." This may reflect earlier information or
may simply indicate the ongoing Judaization of the Khazars themselves.
al-Mas'udi, Muruj adh-Dhahab, ed. Pellat, I, 212, (writing in 943) speaking
of the Khazar capital, Itil : "in this city there are Muslims, Christians,
Jews and pagans. As concerns the Jews, they are the king (= the Qaghan),
his entourage and the Khazars of his tribe. The king of the Khazars
converted to Judaism during the caliphate of Harun ar-Rashid. Some Jews
joined him, arriving there from various Islamic urban centers and from the
land of Rum (= Byzantium). This was because the king of Rum, in our time
Armanus (Romanos Lekapenos, ruled 920-944), converted those Jews who were
in his kingdom to the Christian religion,using coersionon them."
al-Istakhri, ed. de Goeje, p.220 (ca. 951, but using older sources) :"The
smallest group are the Jews, most of them are Muslims and Christians,
except the king and his people of distinction who are Jews"
al-Muqaddasi, ed. de Goeje, p.355 (ca. 985, after the fall of Khazaria in
965) describes Khazaria as "filled with many sheep,honey and Jews."
ab-Nadim, Kitab al-Fihrist, ed. Flügel, p.20/trans. Dodge, I, p.37 (ca.
987-88) "the Khazars write Hebrew"
al-Bakri, ed. Kunik and Rozen, pp.43-44 (ca. 1094) "In general, the Khazars
are Muslims and Christians. Among them also are idolators. The smallest
group among them ar Jews. Their king professes the Jewish faith" (there
then follows a somewhat suspect account of the conversion.
Yaqut (ca. 1229), Mu'jam (Beirut ed.), II, p.367 has a jumble of notices
largely based on the material noted above. Turkish readers will find
translations of some of these accounts in R. SeSen, Islâm CografyacilarIna
Göre Türkler ve Türk Ülkeleri (Ankara, 1985).
al-Istakhri(ed. de Goeje, p.224) further notes that the Qaghanate
could be held only by a Khazar from the royal clan who professed Judaism.
The Khazar legal system provided for two Jewish judges, two Muslim
judges, two Christian judges and one judge for the pagans (noted by
al-Istakhri and al-Mas'udi.
By the latter part of the 8th century, relations with the Muslim
world were, on the whole, rather good. Khazaria was an important sources of
raw materials and slaves entering the Islamic lands of Central Asia and
around the Caspian. As Khazaria declined in the early 10th century, there
were changes. The Rus who were now fully on the scene and anxious to gain
access and perhaps control over the Volga-Caspian route, began to carry out
raids into the Islamic Caspian lands. In a Hebrew document from the
mid-10th century, the Khazar ruler noted that he warred with the Rus' for
"If I left them in peace, they would destroy the whole of the Ishmaelite
land up to Baghdad" (see Kokovtsov, Khazarsko-evreiskaia perepiska, Heb.
text,pp.24,32/russ. trans. 83-4, 102.
The only "sour note" that we know of in Khazar-Muslim relations is
reported by Ibn Fadlan (ed. trans. Togan, Arab. text,p.45/German trans.
pp.102-104, Eng. trans. Dunlop, pp.113-114). When the Khazar ruler learned
that in 922 Muslims had destroyed a synagogue in Dar al-Babunaj, he
retaliated by destroying the minaret of the Friday mosque in Itil and
killing the muezzins. He would have taken further action, it is reported,
had he not feared Muslim counter-retaliation against other synagogues. This
is an important notice, coming from a reliable source who was in the
region. It indicates an identification with Jewish issues on the part of
the Khazar ruler.
We do not have much published evidence on the extent of Jewish institutions
within Khazaria, nor can we measure Judaism's impact on Khazar culture.
There is no doubt that the Khazar Qaghanate was a Turkic state.
Its origins, institutions etc lie in the Turkic world. Having said that,
however, it is also clear from the comments ascribed to the Khazar ruler by
Ibn Fadlan that there was an identification with Jewish issues in the
larger world. This is hardly remarkable. Islamicized Turkic rulers
identified with Muslim issues in much the same way.
I should add here, that the best evidence we have at present
indicates that the Khazars converted to rabbinical Judaism, not its Qaraite
form (see discussion in Z. Ankori, The Karaites in Byzantium (New
York-Jerusalem, 1959), pp.64-79). Qaraism is a sect of Judaism that
developed in the 8th century in Iraq. The Qaraim of Eastern Europe descend
from Qaraite communities that were established in the Crimea, probably
during the Cuman-Qipchaq era that preceeded the Mongol conquest of the
region. These Qaraite communities probably came from Byzantium, although
elements coming directly from the Islamic world may also have been present.
They adopted the Cuman language, which some of their descendants still
speak (although it is, regrettably, an imperiled language). It is not
impossible that they made some conversions among the Cuman tribes.
Some contemporary Jewish communities were aware of the existence of
Khazaria. We have the remarkable correspondence of Hasday b. Shaprut, a
servitor of the Muslim rulers of Spain who heard of this "Jewish kingdom"
in the East from Khurasanian and Byzantine visitors to Spain. Subsequently,
Khazaria would be romanticized by writers such as Yehuda ha-Levi (ca. 1140)
in his Kitab al-Khazari, written in Arabic and later translated into
Hebrew, which provided a spirited defense of an embattled religious
minority community. Prior to that, there was a certain amount of ambiguity
in Jewish writings (not very plentiful) on the subject. First of all, it
brought up the complicated issue of conversion. Jewish policy on this
wavered over the ages. Generally, in the Christian and Islamic lands during
the Middle Ages it was discouraged. Conversion from Christianity and Islam
to Judaism were viewed quite negatively by Christian and Muslim governments
and punished accordingly. Punishments could be extended to entire
communities. But, Khazaria was, in this respect, virgin soil. It became, on
occasion, a refuge for Jews fleeing persecution in the Eastern
Mediterranean world. How many ? We don't know. Why didn't Jews move in mass
numbers to this state ? Again, we have no written evidence. Perhaps sizable
numbers did emigrate - although, with the exceptions of the persecutions
noted previously, I suspect that this did not occur. First of all, we don't
know how many Jews knew even of Khazaria's existence. Secondly, a mass
movement of any ethno-religious minority, in either the Christian or
Islamic world, would hardly have been viewed with favor by the local
government. People could not hop on a plane. Such a movement, except in the
case of dire necessity, or by individuals, not groups, was not feasible.
Nonetheless, those Jews that knew of Khazaria appear to have considered it
a "Jewish state." It was, in the same way that contemporary Volga Bulgharia
may be termed a "Muslim state." Both were Turkic states that had adopted
"foreign" religions. This did not make them any less Turkic. It merely
added another dimension to their culture. The Jews were undoubtedly a
minority in Khazaria. Indeed, the cities (where the nomadic Khazars, with
the exception of the ruler and officials did not live on a year round
basis) appear to have had a predominantly Muslim population - much of it
coming from Khwarazm and Islamo-Iranian Central Asia. The Khazar royal
guard, the Urusiyya of the Arabic sources, was Khwarazmian as was the chief
wazir of the government. The Khazars, like a number of other medieval
Turkic states, followed a policy of religious toleration. One should also
bear in mind that in the Middle Ages, we did not have the nationalism that
has been the major theme (and curse) of so much 19th and 20th century
history. People tended to identify themselves according to religion (in the
name of which they were, of course, just as happy to kill and maim as any
of the modern ideologies). We cannot know what the "Turkic consciousness"
of the Khazars may have been. But, in time, as we have seen, the ruling
Judaized group became increasingly identified with Jewish concerns. In that
sense,to repeat, it was a Jewish state.
The Volga Bulghar state,I might add, much more long-lived, had the
opportunity to develop significant Muslim institutions and become a center
of Muslim learning in Northern Eurasia. Khazaria did not as it was
destroyed by the Rus', with assistance from the Oghuz, ca. 965.
Finally, why the interest in this state now ? I have not seen the
Israeli documentary mentioned by Mr. Kaya - although I was contacted, post
facto, by the producer. I am acquainted, by e-mail, with some of the people
who were involved in the project. They are serious scholars who have some
interesting viewpoints (some more conclusive than others). Khazar studies
were suppressed periodically in the Soviet Union. The few works produced on
the subject (by Artamonov and his student Pletneva) had, quite frankly,
often an anti-semitic slant. Whether this reflected the biases of the
authors or the poltical circumstances in which they were working I cannot
tell. The study of Jewish history of any sort was largely suppressed in the
Soviet Union and I think that is an important fact to bear in mind in
discussing this issue. To some Soviet Jews, it is understandable that
Khazaria could take on a certain romantic aura. It marked a period in which
Jews (Khazar Jews, whatever their origins, and others ), in the territory
of the then Soviet Union, enjoyed a certain degree of freedom and power -
or at the least the absence of persecution for their ethno-religious
origins - something denied Soviet Jews. Now, that things have opened up,
there has been a rediscovery of the Khazars. New or long suppressed
archaeological materials from Khazaria, some of which bear unmistakably
Jewish symbols, are coming to light. We have much more to learn about
Khazaria, its peoples and religions. As new materials come to light, there
are bound to be some extravagant claims and theories. In time, these will
fall by the wayside. In the long run, hopefully, we learn more about one of
the most interesting and important Turkic states of the Middle Ages - which
also happened to have a Jewish identity as well. As for the place of
Khazaria and Khazar Jewry in the formation of present day Russian,
Ukrainian and Belorusian Jewry, that is another (although, of course,
intimately connected) issue. I do not propose to enter into it here.
For those interested in Khazar studies, I would recommend the following
books :
M.I. Artamonov, Istoriia Khazar (Leningrad, 1962) - flawed but still useful
D.M. Dunlop, The History of the Jewish Khazars (Princeton, 1954) - still
essential reading
N. Golb, O. Pritsak, Khazarian Hebrew Docments of the Tenth Century
(Ithaca, 1982)
P.B. Golden, Khazars Studies (Budapest, 1980), 2 vols. - Turkological
perspective, exhaustive analysis of the fragments of the Khazar language
D. Ludwig, Struktur und Gesellschaft des Chazaren-Reiches im Licht der
schriftlichen Quellen (Münster, 1982) - very thorough, detailed analysis of
the data on Khazar society
A.P. Novosel'tsev, Khazarskoe gosudarstvo i ego rol' v istorii Vostochnoi
Evropy i Kavkaza (Moscow, 1990) a good attempt at a summation of what is
presently known.
There is, of course, a rich literature on the subject to be found
in scholarly journals. Among the latter I would recommend Archivum Eurasiae
Medii Aevi which often has articles dealing with the Khazars.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Peter B. Golden
Professor of History
Rutgers University
Dept. of History
Conklin Hall
175 University Avenue
Newark, NJ 07102
tel. (201) 648-5410 (dept.), 648-1054 (office)
fax : (201) 648-1193
pgolden@andromeda.rutgers.edu
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#3. New Publication: Turcoman International
Turcoman Int' was created to provide news, cultural infomation, history,
travel, humour - to mention just a few of the areas we cover in the
magazine - for all English speaking Turks, and other interested parties.
Turcoman aims to;
Inform English speaking Turks abroad, and other English speakers of the
western world, of the richness and diversity of the Turkish world.
Publish and promote Turkish business, tourism and investment information to
encourage cooperation and development in Turkish industry.
Regain the lost generations of young Turks experiencing an identity crisis
abroad, and to reimbue pride and honour in Turkish cultural heritage and
ancestry.
Alert, inform and guide Turkish communities living abroad of issues which
may effect them in their country of residence or homelands.
In addition:
Turcoman inspires pride and motivates action
Advocates mutual support and cooperation
Encourages unity and reciprocation in words and deeds
And promotes commitment to all said principles for the mutual good of
Turkish communities and their hosts.
Turcoman Int' description:
Language: English (Turkish section under review).
48 pages mono (to be increased to 56). 8 two colour pages including front
and back.
Readership: 40, 000
Distribution: UK, USA, Turkey, Northern Cyprus, Austria, Canada and others.
Regularity: quarterly aiming for bi-monthly)
Contributions:
All contribution by writers, journalists welcome. Content must be of
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Material cannot be returned unless agreed in advance.
Material length: 2,000 words maximum (more by arrangement and depending on
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#4. Turkmen President gets mixed Moscow reception
RFE/RL Newsline, 8 August 1997
RUSSIAN, TURKMEN PRESIDENTS MEET ... On 7 August, Russian
President Boris Yeltsin held a two-hour summit meeting in Moscow
with his Turkmen counterpart Saparmurad Niyazov. The meeting
succeeded in resolving some, but not all, problems in bilateral
relations. In a joint communique, the two presidents pledged to
upgrade bilateral relations on the principle of equal partnership, and
to draft economic accords on protecting mutual investment and
avoiding dual taxation in order to broaden economic cooperation.
Yeltsin accepted an invitation from Niyazov to visit Turkmenistan in
spring 1998.
... DISCUSS OIL ... Specifically, Yeltsin told Niyazov that the signing in
early July of an agreement between Azerbaijan's state oil company
SOCAR and the Russian oil companies Rosneft and LUKoil to develop
the Kyapaz oil field, ownership of which is contested by
Turkmenistan, was "a mistake" resulting from the failure of the
Russian oil companies involved to inform the Russian president and
government of their intentions, according to ITAR-TASS. (This
disclaimer lacks conviction insofar as Russian First Deputy Prime
Minister Boris Nemtsov discussed the deal with Azerbaijani President
Heidar Aliev prior to the signing and was present at the signing
ceremony.) Yeltsin noted that the positions of Russia and
Turkmenistan concerning the legal status of the Caspian Sea "are
quite close," and that both countries agree on the need to expedite
the signing by all Caspian littoral states of a convention based on
international law formalizing the status of the Caspian.
... AND GAS ... "Nezavisimaya gazeta" on 8 August quoted Niyazov as
telling journalists after his meeting with Yeltsin that their primary
topic of discussion was the market for natural gas, of which Russia
and Turkmenistan together control 68 percent of world reserves.
Niyazov claimed that "Russia fully supports Turkmenia" and will not
insist on a monopoly on the extraction and transportation within the
CIS of natural gas. Niyazov also said that Yeltsin endorsed the
unilateral annulment by the Turkmen government of the Russian-
Turkmen joint venture Turkmenrosgas. He explained that
Turkmenrosgas had been abolished because it had failed to engage as
planned in exploration, development and investment, according to
DPA. Niyazov said he and Yeltsin had reached agreement on creating
a new joint venture to supply Turkmen gas to the CIS market, but in
an implicit contradiction, he accused Russia of "squeezing
Turkmenistan out of the CIS gas market."
... BUT NO EXPORT AGREEMENT REACHED. Speaking at a joint news
conference with Niyazov, Rem Vyakhirev, head of Russia's giant
Gazprom, which controls the gas pipeline network, said that although
Russia no longer needs Turkmen gas, the company would continue its
cooperation with Turkmenistan in order to prevent the country's
population from "starving to death," Interfax and NTV reported.
Niyazov told journalists that during a meeting on 6 August with
Vyakhirev and Russian Prime Minister Viktor Chernomyrdin he had
failed to reach agreement on the export of Turkmen gas via Russia to
Europe, but that Russia had offered to continue exporting Turkmen
gas to other CIS member states, whose combined unpaid debts to
Turkmenistan for gas supplies amount to billions of dollars. Russia
and Turkmenistan are in competition to increase their exports of
natural gas to Turkey.
RUSSIA BANS FURTHER EXPORTS OF KAZAKH GAS. Vyakhirev also
announced at the press conference that Gazprom will "under no
circumstances" allow Kazakhstan to continue to use the Russian
export pipeline network to export natural gas to world markets, AFP
and Interfax reported. Vyakhirev argued that "surrendering one's
market when there is insufficient [export] capacity is ... a crime
against Russia.."
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#5. Miltary Coup in Tajikistan?
[for personal use only]
Shots heard in Tajik capital, president seeks help
03:21 a.m. Aug 10, 1997 Eastern
DUSHANBE, Aug 10 (Reuter) - Small-arms fire was heard in the Tajik capital
Dushanbe on Sunday, a day after fighting erupted between two rival armed
bands and caused dozens of casualties.
Russian military sources said President Imomali Rakhmonov was planning to
ask Russian-led peacekeeping troops from the Commonwealth of Independent
States in Dushanbe to take over the city's security.
The peacekeepers' mandate ran out on July 30 but leaders of the 12-nation
CIS grouping of ex-Soviet countries have a verbal agreement to keep their
forces in Tajikistan to help it emerge from a civil war which ended in a
peace deal last June.
Parts of the north of the capital where there was fighting on Saturday were
quiet but witnesses said firing could be heard further out from the centre
early on Sunday.
Saturday's fighting sent residents fleeing and Russia's NTV said five people
had been killed and 12 injured.
The International Committee of the Red Cross said it gave a Dushanbe
hospital medicines to treat 40 wounded people.
A source in the presidential guard said on Saturday that the guard was
fighting the forces of a maverick government commander, Colonel Makhmud
Khudoyberdyev, 30 km (20 miles) south of Dushanbe in the Fakhrobad Valley
and that Khudoyberdyev was trying to get to Dushanbe.
He said two of his men had been killed and three wounded in the valley and
that more of Khudoyberdyev's forces were 22 km (14 miles) west of the
capital.
Khudoyberdyev, who has mutinied twice and is seen by Western observers as a
potential coup-maker, had said he wanted Sukhrob Kasimov, a rival armed
leader, to leave the capital.
He could not be reached for comment on Sunday but Russia's Itar-Tass news
agency quoted him as saying he would not try to take Dushanbe and that he
would follow the president's orders.
``Units of the rapid-reaction brigade under my command have no intention of
attacking Dushanbe,'' he told Tass by telephone.
Blasts from rocket-propelled grenades and a pall of black smoke over
Dushanbe's northern district on Saturday spelled the end of a truce which
representatives of the CIS peacekeeping troops said they negotiated for 2.30
p.m. (0930 GMT).
A spokesman for the peacekeepers identified the commanders fighting in
Dushanbe as Yakub Salimov, a tax official and a nominally pro-government
warlord, and Kasimov, chief of an elite unit of Interior Ministry troops.
Khudoyberdyev, who commands an elite armoured brigade, has ambivalent
relations with the government.
The Tajik government and the republic's armed Islamic opposition signed the
June agreement to end a civil war which killed tens of thousands of people
and displaced many more.
But Khudoyberdyev said last week the return of up to 500 armed Islamic
opposition guerrillas to Dushanbe, which the accord provides for, would
provoke fresh bloodshed.
A ceasefire has largely held since December but a kaleidoscopic array of
armed bands threaten stability in the impoverished republic of 5.7 million
which borders Afghanistan and China.
Copyright 1997 Reuters Limited.
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#6. KYRGYZ NEWS - 7,8 AUGUST (Naryn Aiyp)
KYRGYZ NEWS - 7 AUGUST 1997, THURSDAY
1. 10-member Kyrgyz governmental delegation, led by Prime minister Apas
Joumagulov, is taking part in the meeting of the Inter-State Council of the
Central Asian Union in Almaty today. Uzbek PM Otkir Sultanov and Kazakh PM
Akejan Kajegeldin are taking part. Economical, transport, power, migration and
other problems being considered.
Kyrgyz officals expected to raise problem of payment for water from Kyrgyz
reservoirs. To do it, amendments should be made to the Almaty agreement on
water resources, signed in 1992.
2. President Askar Akayev's office has received a letter from Holly Cartner,
Executive Director of the Human Rights Watch/Helsinki, based in New York. HRW
expresses "protest the harrasment and detention of peaceful demonstrators in
Bishkek in contravention of international human rights standards concerning
freedom of assembly".
Yntymak movement, which unites homeless young people of Bishkek, held several
demonstrations in Bishkek in 1996-1997. The last one, held on 7 July 1997,
was despersed by force and 12 demonstrators were detained. Among them was
Tursunbek Akunov, chairman of the Human Rights Movement of Kyrgyzstan, who was
accused of organizing unsunctioned meeting and was sentenced to 15 days of
imprisonment on 9 July. He was released only on 22 July. Other detained people
were released on 8 July, after warning.
3. Rakhat Suyunkulov, deputy head of the city inspection, told our
correspondent in Bishkek today that city administration had decided to
demolish 22 houses along the Jamgyrchinov street in Bishkek. These houses have
been constructed by members of the Yntymak movement and city administration
consider them illegal. Lawsuits against owners of all 22 houses have been
opened.
4. Foreign ministry announced in Bishkek today that American senator Charles
Robb has departed to Cholpon-Ata town today. He will meet with President Askar
Akayev there.
Robb arrived in Bishkek yestreday and had meetings with the Foreign minister,
Muratbek Imanaliyev, and Industry & Foreign Trade Mminister, Andrei Iordan, in
Bishkek on 6 August. Political and economical reforms in Kyrgyzstan were
discussed.
5. Government press service announced in Bishkek today that governmental
Finance Inspection had inspected 1,153 enterprises in the country in 6 months
of this year. It has been found they had embezzled 42.9 million som (about
$2.5 million) in January-June. Government Board will consider the case soon.
6. Pamirbek Kazybayev, a prominent journalist, told our correspondent in
Bishkek today that a new independent paper titled "Islam Culture" had been
registered by the Justice ministry. First edition will be released by 31
August, 6th anniversary of the Kyrgyz endependence. Kazybayev is a chief
editor of the paper.
KYRGYZ NEWS - 8 AUGUST, FRIDAY
1. Prime ministers of Kazakhstan (Akejan Kajegeldin), Kyrgyzstan (Apas
Joumagulov) and Uzbekistan (Otkir Sultanov) held a meeting in Almaty on 7
August. It was organized on the instructions of the summit of 3 presidents,
Nursultan Nazarbayev, Askar Akayev and Islam Karimov, held in Kyrgyzstan on
24-25 July. Government press service held in Bishkek on 8 august a news
conference on results of the Almaty meeting.
11 subjects were on the agenda of the meeting and agreements were made on 9 of
them. Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan disagreed on issue of transportation on the
interstate highways and on the issue of jointly use of the high-power electric
lines. When Kyrgyz President Askar Akayev visited Almaty early this year, it
was agreed that no more than 300,000 trucks should pass in a year through the
Bishkek-Almaty highway without of charge. Both sides violate the condition. It
was agreed that Kazakh prime minister will visit Bishkek next Friday, on 15
August, to discuss both issues.
Press service says the issue on water was not discussed at the meeting. Kyrgyz
Parliament dicided in June that Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan had to pay for water
from water reservoirs on Kyrgyz territory.
Prime ministers agreed on measures on migration, tariffs on the railways and
other subjects. Prominent Uzbek journalist, Adilbek Kaipbergenov, was
appointed as chief editor of the jointly "Problems of Central Asia" journal,
established at the last summit. Also, it was agreed to hold a conference
"Economical cooperation in Central Asia" later this year.
2. Government press service announced in Bishkek today that Chairman of the
Central Asian Bank, Gamal Saadanbekov from Kyrgyzstan, reported to the meeting
in Almaty on 7 August. The bank was founded by Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and
Usbekistan early this year and each country agreed to give $3 million to its
fund. Kyrgyzstan has paid its $3 million due, Kazakhstan has paid $2 million
and Uzbekistan has paid $1.5 million. Uzbek prime minister promised in Almaty
that his country would make additional $1.5 million soon.
Bank is financing 8 projects now and prime ministers approved its activity.
Bank has made a $1.6-million profit already.
3. Foreign ministry announced in Bishkek today that U.S senator John McGain
and congressman Phil Gramm will arrive in Kyrgyzstan on 16 August. They will
meet with President Askar Akayev and discuss the economical and political
reforms in Kyrgyzstan.
4. Farid Niyazov, chief-of-staff of the Legislative Assembly of the
Parliament, has announced that information on corruption among members of
Parliament, had published in the papers Nasha Gazeta, Vecherni Bishkek, Kyrgyz
Madaniyaty and Asaba recently, is false.
Journalist with Asaba told our correspondent today that Procurator General
office had intention to open lawsuit against the Asaba. Tolkun Namatbayeva
from the Nasha Gazeta says it is impossible to prove that published
information was false, because Procurator General, Asanbek Sharshenaliyev,
asked the Parliament early this year to permit to bring legal actions against
7 members of Parliament.
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#7. Kyrgyzstan: Court's Ruling Leaves Questions On Press Freedom
By Naryn Aiyp and Don Hill
PRAGUE, August 8 (RFE/RL) -- The Kyrgyzstan Supreme Court's decision to
order the release from jail Tuesday (August 5) of Zamira Sydykova, chief
editor
of the independent Res Publica weekly, leaves unanswered key questions about
press freedom in the Central Asian republic.
Authorities freed Sydykova and appear to have restored her right to work as a
journalist. But her colleague, Alexandr Alyanchikov, fared less well. The
court
reduced his 18-month prison sentence to one year and suspended it. He is
free but
forbidden to write for the press.
The Supreme Court in Bishkek annulled four libel convictions against Sydykova.
But Sydykova told RFE/RL two days ago that she still doesn't know the scope of
the court's decision. She was released from prison but hasn't received any
documentation regarding her status.
Akylbek Matkerimov, who chaired Tuesday's court session told RFE/RL in
Bishkek that the Supreme Court did not acquit Zamira Sydykova fully. He
said the
court only corrected mistakes that had been made by lower courts. He didn't
elaborate.
Sydykova was convicted in May of libeling the president of the state gold
company, Kyrgyzaltyn, and sentenced to 18 month imprisonment. She had spent
74 days in custody when the court ordered her release.
The libel charge arose from four articles published between 1993 and 1996 in
which the writers criticized the executive, Dastan Sarygulov, for his
management
of funds flowing through the state-owned gold firm.
Amnesty International, Committee to Protect Journalists, Reporters Sans
Frontiers,
and other international organizations had lobbied Kyrgyz President Askar
Akayev
for her release.
Briggite Duffeaut, who identified herself as the chairperson of the
International
Federation on Human Rights, based in Helsinki, was in Bishkek Tuesday for the
court session. She told RFE/RL that she considered the court ruling a
political
decision, not juridical one. The independent Human Rights Committee of
Kyrgyzstan charged Tuesday that government officials exert tremendous pressure
on the country's judges.
The Kyrgyz Republic became independent in 1991 following the collapse of the
Soviet Union. In 1993, it adopted a constitution that guarantees civil rights
including press freedom. But the Freedom House Survey of Press Freedom this
year rated Kyrgyzstan, in the survey's words, "not free" in the area of media
control legislation, political pressure, economic influences, and
repression. A 1992
law calling for freedom of the press requires registration of news media and
prohibits what the law calls violating the privacy or dignity of individuals.
As the Sydykova case demonstrates, a conviction for libel in Kyrgyzstan can
bring
imprisonment and banishment from journalism. In developed democracies, libel
ordinarily is a civil offense, not a criminal matter.
08-08-97
© 1997 Radio Free Europe / Radio Liberty, Inc.
All Rights Reserved.
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#8. Letters to the editor
From: johanson@MZDMZA.ZDV.UNI-MAINZ.DE (Prof. Dr. Lars Johanson)
Subject: Turkistan-Newsletter
To: turkistan-n@turkistan.org
Dear Mehmet Tutuncu,
thank you so much for your highly interesting newsletter! Im am especially
happy that Peter B. Golden, one of the most distinguished and serious
scholars in the field, has joined your editorial board. I wish you all the
best for the future!
Lars Johanson
Professor of Turcology, University of Mainz
Editor of the journal Turkic Languages
Prof. Dr. Lars Johanson
Seminar fuer Orientkunde
Universitaet Mainz
D-55099 Mainz, Germany
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************************************************
Mehmet Tutuncu
(SOTA) Research centre for Turkestan, Azerbaijan, Crimea, Caucasus and Siberia
P.o. box 9642
2003 LP Haarlem
The Netherlands
e-mail: <mtutuncu@turkiye.net> or <sota@euronet.nl>
Turkish World Home Page:<http://www.turkiye.net/sota/sota.html>
Crimean Tatars Home-Page: <http://www.euronet.nl/users/sota/krimtatar.html>
*******************************
TURKISTAN-N (TN) is an electronic newsletter whose purpose is to report
on the "Land of the Turks". By the use of the word "Turkistan" we mean,
in general, lands where Turkic peoples live, without any geographical
restriction and without specific reference to Central Asia or political
boundaries. TN reports on all the the Turkic peoples from Kyrgyz, Kazaks,
and Uzbek to Anatolian and Thracian Turks, but also about much less known
Turkish/Turkic peoples like the Gagauz, Tuvinians, or Yakuts. TN was
established on 9 May 1997 as an initiative of S.O.T.A. Book reviews,
commentaries, articles, and letters from the readers can also be published
in TN. At this moment, TN has at this moment more than 1200 subscribers.
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